Excavations at the cave of Santa Ana (,, ) In, excavation is the exposure, processing and recording of archaeological remains. An excavation site or 'dig' is a site being studied. Such a site excavation concerns itself with a specific archaeological site or a connected series of sites, and may be conducted over as little as several weeks to over a number of years. Numerous specialized techniques each with its particular features are used. Resources and other practical issues do not allow archaeologists to carry out excavations whenever and wherever they choose. These constraints mean many known sites have been deliberately left unexcavated. This is with the intention of preserving them for future generations as well as recognising the role they serve in the communities that live near them. Excavation involves the recovery of several types of data from a site. These data include (objects made or modified by humans), features (modifications to the site itself such as post molds, burials, and hearths), (evidence for the local environment and resources being used such as snail shells, seeds, and butchered bones) and, most importantly, (relationships among the other types of data). Ideally, data from the excavation should suffice to reconstruct the site completely in three-dimensional space. The presence or absence of archaeological remains can often be suggested by, such as. Indeed, grosser information about the development of the site may be drawn from this work but the understanding of finer features usually requires excavation though appropriate use of. Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Historical development [ ] Excavation techniques have developed over the years from a treasure hunting process to one which seeks to fully understand the sequence of human activity on a given site and that site's relationship with other sites and with the landscape in which it is set. The history of excavation began with a crude search for treasure and for artifacts which fell into the category of '. These curios were the subject of interest of. It was later appreciated that digging on a site destroyed the evidence of earlier people's lives which it had contained. Once the curio had been removed from its context, most of the information it held was lost. It was from this realization that antiquarianism began to be replaced by archaeology, a process still being perfected. Site formation [ ] Archaeological material tends to accumulate in events. A gardener swept a pile of soil into a corner, laid a gravel path or planted a bush in a hole. A builder built a wall and back-filled the trench. Years later, someone built a pigsty onto it and drained the pigsty into the nettle patch. Later still, the original wall blew over and so on. Each event, which may have taken a short or long time to accomplish, leaves a. This layer cake of events is often referred to as the. It is by analysis of this sequence or record that excavation is intended to permit interpretation, which should lead to discussion and understanding. Construction Safety Consensus Guidelines The INGAA Foundation, Inc. Trenching and Excavation Safety Document: CS-S-12 Revision: 0 Publication Date. FREE estimates. More than 20 years of experience. Urban area experts. Excavation, earth retention and shoring, site preparation, and grading. More About Our Company. Nearly every construction project starts with Excavation Contractors. With grading and digging for foundations and drainage systems. The prominent highlighted the fact that the archaeological evidence left at a site may not be entirely indicative of the historical events that actually took place there. Using an comparison, he looked at how hunters amongst the of north central spent a great deal of time in a certain area simply waiting for prey to arrive there, and that during this period, they undertook other tasks to pass the time, such as the carving of various objects, including a wooden mould for a mask, a horn spoon and an ivory needle, as well as repairing a skin pouch and a pair of caribou skin socks. Binford notes that all of these activities would have left evidence in the archaeological record, but that none of them would provide evidence for the primary reason that the hunters were in the area; to wait for prey. As he remarked, waiting for animals to hunt 'represented 24% of the total man-hours of activity recorded; yet there is no recognisable archaeological consequences of this behaviour. No tools left on the site were used, and there were no immediate material 'byproducts' of the 'primary' activity. All of the other activities conducted at the site were essentially boredom reducers.' Burial in Roman on a development funded site in London. Note 'out of phase' pipe intrusion left in for practical reasons Basic types [ ] There are two basic types of modern archaeological excavation: • Research excavation - when time and resources are available to excavate the site fully and at a leisurely pace. These are now almost exclusively the preserve of academics or private societies who can muster enough volunteer labour and funds. The size of the excavation can also be decided by the director as it goes on. • Development-led excavation - undertaken by professional archaeologists when the site is threatened by building development. Normally funded by the developer meaning that time is more of a factor as well as its being focused only on areas to be affected by building. The workforce is generally more skilled however and pre-development excavations also provide a comprehensive record of the areas investigated. Is sometimes thought of as a separate type of excavation but in practice tends to be a similar form of development-led practice. Various new forms of excavation terminology have appeared in recent years such as some of which have been criticized within the profession as jargon created to cover up for falling standards of practice. Development led archaeology [ ] There are two main types of trial excavation in professional archaeology both commonly associated with development-led excavation: the test pit or trench and the watching brief. The purpose of trial excavations is to determine the extent and characteristics of archaeological potential in a given area before extensive excavation work is undertaken. This is usually conducted in development-led excavations as part of planning. The main difference between and is that trial trenches are actively dug for the purpose of revealing archaeological potential whereas are cursory examination of trenches where the primary function of the trench is something other than archaeology, for example a trench cut for a gas pipe in a road. In the USA, a method of evaluation called a is used which is a specified half meter square line of trial trenches dug by hand. Concepts [ ] Stratification [ ]. In the excavation area in the Cemetery (). In archaeology, especially in excavating, is a fundamental concept. It is largely based on the. When archaeological finds are below the surface of the ground (as is most commonly the case), the identification of the context of each find is vital to enable the archaeologist to draw conclusions about the site and the nature and date of its occupation. It is the archaeologist's role to attempt to discover what contexts exist and how they came to be created. Archaeological stratification or sequence is the dynamic superimposition of single units of stratigraphy or contexts. The context (physical location) of a discovery can be of major significance. More precisely, an archaeological context is an event in time which has been preserved in the archaeological record. The cutting of a pit or ditch in the past is a context, whilst the material filling it will be another. Multiple fills seen in would mean multiple contexts. Structural features, natural deposits and are also contexts. By separating a site into these basic, discrete units, archaeologists are able to create a chronology for activity on a site and describe and interpret it. Stratigraphic are the relationships created between contexts in time representing the chronological order they were created. An example would be a ditch and the back-fill of said ditch. The relationship of 'the fill' context to the ditch 'cut' context is 'the fill' occurred later in the sequence, i.e., you have to dig a ditch first before you can back-fill it. A relationship that is later in the sequence is sometimes referred to as 'higher' in the sequence and a relationship that is earlier 'lower' though the term higher or lower does not itself imply a context needs to be physically higher or lower. It is more useful to think of this higher or lower term as it relates to the contexts position in a, which is a two-dimensional representation of a site's formation in space and time. Combining stratigraphic contexts for interpretation [ ] Understanding a site in modern archaeology is a process of grouping single contexts together in ever larger groups by virtue of their relationships. The terminology of these larger clusters varies depending on practitioner but the terms interface, sub-group, group and land use are common. An example of a sub-group could be the three contexts that make up a burial; the grave cut, the body and the back-filled earth on top of the body. In turn sub-groups can be clustered together with other sub-groups by virtue of their stratigraphic relationship to form groups which in turn form '. A sub-group burial could cluster with other sub group burials to form a cemetery or burial group which in turn could be clustered with a building such as church to produce a 'phase'. A less rigorously defined combination of one or more contexts is sometimes called a. Phase and phasing [ ]. The same Romano-Celtic temple reduced in phase to the construction level immediately after the building of the inner wall and before the construction of the outer wall to the left of picture. Note reduction in phase has produced detailed information concerning the exact sequence of temple construction Phase is the most easily understood grouping for the layman as it implies a near contemporaneous representing 'what you would see if you went back to a specific point in time'. Often but not always a phase implies the identification of an occupation surface 'old ground level' that existed at some earlier time. The production of phase interpretations is one of the first goals of stratigraphic interpretation and excavation. Digging 'in phase' is not quite the same as phasing a site. Phasing a site represents reducing the site either in excavation or to contemporaneous horizons whereas 'digging in phase' is the process of stratigraphic removal of archaeological remains so as not to remove contexts that are earlier in time 'lower in the sequence' before other contexts that have a latter physical stratigraphic relationship to them as defined by the. The process of interpretation in practice will have a bearing on excavation strategies on site so 'phasing' a site is actively pursued during excavation where at all possible, and is considered good practice. In practice [ ]. Kilwinning Abbey Dig Introduction [ ] Excavation initially involves the removal of any topsoil overburden by machine. This material may be examined by for stray but unless the site has remained untouched since its abandonment there is invariably a layer of modern material on the surface of limited archaeological interest. In rural areas, any features are often visible beneath the surface as opposed to urban areas where there may be thick layers of human deposits and only the uppermost contexts will be initially visible and definable through isolation from other contexts. A strategy for sampling the contexts and features is formulated which may involve total excavation of each feature or only portions. It is preferred goal of excavation to remove all archaeological deposits and features in the reverse order they were created and construct a Harris matrix as a chronological record or 'sequence' of the site. This Harris matrix is used for interpretation and combining contexts into ever larger units of understanding. This stratigraphic removal of the site is crucial for understanding the chronology of events on site. It is perhaps easier to think of this as 'archaeological deposits should leave the site in the reverse order they arrived'. A grid is usually set up, dividing the site into 5 m squares to better aid the positioning of the features and contexts on the overall site plan. This grid is usually tied into a national database such as the in the UK. In this grid becomes invaluable for implementing single context recording. The single context recording system [ ] was developed in the 1970s by the (as well as earlier in Winchester and York) and has become the de facto recording system in many parts of the world and is especially suited to the complexities of deep and the process of. Each excavated context is given a unique 'context number' and is recorded by type on a context sheet and perhaps being drawn on a and/or a. Depending on time constraints and importance contexts may also be photographed, but in this case a grouping of contexts and their associations are the purpose of the photography. From each context are bagged and labeled with their context number and site code for later cross reference work carried out post-excavation. The height above sea level of pertinent points on a context, such as the top and bottom of a wall are taken and added to plans sections and context sheets. Heights are recorded with a or total station by relation to the site temporary (abbr. Samples of deposits from contexts are sometimes also taken, for later environmental analysis or for. Stratigraphic excavation in practice [ ]. Screening during an excavation. Finds and artifacts that survive in the archaeological record are retrieved in the main by hand and observation as the context they survive in is excavated. Several other techniques are available depending on suitability and time constraints. Sieving and is used to maximize the recovery of small items such as small shards of pottery or flint flakes. The use of sieving is more common on research based excavations where more time is available. Some success has been achieved with the use of cement mixers and bulk sieving. This method allows the quick removal of context by shovel and mattock yet allows for a high retrieval rate. Spoil is shovelled into cement mixers and water added to form a slurry which is then poured through a large screen mesh. Flotation is a process of retrieval that works by passing spoil onto the surface of water and separating finds that float from the spoil which sinks, this is especially suited to the recovery of environmental data such as seeds and small bones. Not all finds retrieval is done during excavation and some especially flotation may take place post-excavation from samples taken during excavation. One important role of finds retrieval during excavation is the role of specialists to provide information on the contexts being removed from the archaeological record. This can provide advance warning of potential discoveries to come by virtue of redeposited in contexts higher in the (which should be coming offsite earlier than contexts from early eras and phases). Spot dating also forms part of a confirmation process, of assessing the validity of the working hypothesis on the phasing of site during excavation. For example, the presence of an anomalous pottery in what was thought to be an Iron Age ditch feature could radically alter onsite thinking on the correct strategy for digging a site and save a lot of information being lost due to incorrect assumptions about the nature of the deposits which will be destroyed by the excavation process and in turn, limit the sites potential for revealing information for post-excavation specialists. Or anomalous information could show up errors in excavation such as 'undercutting'. In part relies on accurate excavation and in this sense the two activities become interdependent. Digital recording [ ] Archaeological excavation is an unrepeatable process, since the same area of the ground cannot be excavated twice. Thus, archaeology is often known as a destructive science, where you must destroy the original evidence in order to make observations. To mitigate this, highly accurate and precise digital methods can be used to record the excavation process and its results. Digital tools used by field archaeologists during excavation include,,,, 3d, and. After high quality digital data have been recorded, these data can then be shared over the internet for and use by the public and archaeological researchers. Digital imaging or digital image acquisition is, such as of a physical scene or of the interior structure of an object. The term is often assumed to imply or include the processing, compression, storage, printing, and display of the images. Mechanical excavation [ ]. Excavation at the site of the (Germany) This describes the use in excavations of various types and sizes of machines from small to heavy duty earth-moving machinery. Machines are often used in what is called salvage or rescue archaeology in developer-led excavation when there are financial or time pressures. Using a mechanical excavator is the quickest method to remove soil and debris and to prepare the surface for excavation by hand, taking care to avoid damaging archaeological deposits by accident or to make it difficult to identify later precisely where finds were located. The use of such machinery is often routine (as it is for instance with the British archaeological television series ) but can also be controversial as it can result in less discrimination in how the archaeological sequence on a site is recorded. One of the earliest uses of earth-moving machinery was at in 1967. An old road through the henge was to be straightened and improved and was going to cause considerable damage to the archaeology. Rosemary Hill describes how 'oversaw large, high-speed excavations, taking bulldozers to the site in a manner that shocked some of his colleagues but yielded valuable if tantalising information about what Durrington had looked like and how it might have been used.' Machines are used primarily to remove modern and for the control of. In mechanical diggers are sometimes nicknamed 'big yellow trowels'. Organisation of workforce [ ] A group of archaeological excavators will generally work for a supervisor who reports to the site director or project manager. The director will have ultimate responsibility for interpreting the site and writing the final report. Most excavations are eventually published in professional journals although this process can take years. This process takes place post-excavation and involves a myriad of other specialists. See also [ ]. • Binford, Lewis (1978). 'Dimensional analysis of behaviour & site structure: learning from an Eskimo hunting stand'. American Antiquity. • Barker (1982). Techniques of Archaeological Excavation (2nd ed.). London: Batsford.. • Roosevelt; Cobb; Moss; Olson; Ünlüsoy (2015).. Journal of Field Archaeology: 325–346.. • Van Horn, D.M.; J. White (1986). 'Some Techniques for Mechanical Excavation in Salvage Archaeology'. Journal of Field Archaeology. 13 (2): 239–244.. Past Perfect. Retrieved 4 September 2013. First Colony Foundation. Retrieved 10 October 2013. • Hill, Rosemary (2009).. Profile Books. Further reading [ ] • Corrado Pedeli and Stefano Pulga (2013). Conservation Practices on Archaeological Excavations: Principles and Methods, Los Angeles: Getty Publications, • Sharon Sullivan and Richard Mackay (2013). Archaeological Sites: Conservation and Management, Los Angeles: Getty Publications, External links [ ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to. • • • Reuben Thorpe - Which way is up? Context formation and transformation: The life and deaths of a hot bath in Beirut] • Record Checking Guidance for Anglo-Lebanese Excavations in Beirut] • Site Phasing and Higher order grouping guidelines for Anglo-Lebanese Excavations in Beirut] • • NIOSH Safety and Health Topic:.
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